34:["$","title",null,{"children":"Nuclear Tests, 1945 to 1998: Did the Treaties Stop the Testing or Move It? | Dusty Wolfe Synek | Observable"}] 3c:Tc8d,# Nuclear Tests, 1945 to 1998: Did the Treaties Stop the Testing or Move It? ### Introduction & Hypothesis Between July 1945 and May 1998, seven countries set off 2,051 nuclear explosions. Two treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union fall inside that record. The Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed on 5 August 1963, banned tests in the atmosphere, in space and under water, but left underground tests legal. The Threshold Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1974, banned tests above 150 kilotons from 31 March 1976. Each test in the record has at least eight dimensions: date, country, latitude, longitude, test site, deployment type, a lower and upper yield, and purpose. No single chart can hold them all, so this notebook splits them across three linked views. **Hypothesis Statement:** Arms-control treaties, not a slowdown, reshaped U.S. and Soviet nuclear testing. After the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, every U.S. and Soviet test was underground, apart from 4 U.S. cratering shots (buried blasts meant to dig a crater, which broke the surface), yet the two tested about as often as before: 54 tests a year from 1964 to 1975, against 51 a year in the ten years they tested between 1951 and 1962. After the Threshold Test Ban Treaty's 150-kiloton limit began on 31 March 1976, neither side recorded a test above 150 kilotons in 517 more tests. France and China, which never signed the 1963 treaty, kept testing in the open air until 1974 and 1980. ### Data Sources & Scope * **Tests:** Bergkvist, N.-O. and Ferm, R. (2000), *Nuclear Explosions 1945–1998*, Swedish Defence Research Establishment (FOA) and Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), report FOA-R--00-01572-180--SE. Copy used: [TidyTuesday, 20 August 2019](https://github.com/rfordatascience/tidytuesday/tree/master/data/2019/2019-08-20), `nuclear_explosions.csv`, 2,051 rows. * **Treaty dates:** Arms Control Association, [Limited Test Ban Treaty](https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/limited-test-ban-treaty) and [Threshold Test Ban Treaty](https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/threshold-test-ban-treaty). * **Basemap:** world-atlas 2.0.2, `land-110m.json` (Natural Earth, public domain). * **Scope:** USA 1,032 tests, USSR 714, France 210, UK 45, China 45, India 3, Pakistan 2. Yields are estimates in kilotons (kt) of TNT, often given as a range. Many Soviet rows come from seismic agencies, not from the Soviet government, so their yields are outside estimates. * **Method:** every count, grouping and scale below is computed in this notebook from the raw CSV (see *Data transformations in the visualization*). ### The Narrative: What the Visualizations Show View 1 maps where each year's tests went off and whether they were above or below ground. View 2 counts each country's tests per year, so the 1963 switch from vermillion to blue in the U.S. and Soviet panels sits next to the French and Chinese panels, which stay vermillion until 1974 and 1980. View 3 plots the size of every U.S. and Soviet test and shows the ceiling that appears at 150 kt in 1976. One year control drives all three. The six revisions that led to these views follow them, and the cells that load the data are in the appendix at the end.3d:T480,// Interactive: custom play/pause scrubber shared by all three final views viewof year = { const form = html``; let timer = null; const stop = () => { clearInterval(timer); timer = null; form.play.textContent = "Play"; }; const set = v => { form.range.value = v; form.out.value = v; form.value = +v; form.dispatchEvent(new Event("input", {bubbles: true})); }; form.range.oninput = event => { event.stopPropagation(); set(form.range.value); }; form.play.onclick = () => { if (timer) return stop(); if (+form.range.value >= 1998) set(1945); form.play.textContent = "Pause"; timer = setInterval(() => (+form.range.value >= 1998 ? stop() : set(+form.range.value + 1)), 600); }; form.value = 1962; invalidation.then(stop); return form; }3e:T1120,// D3 customization: hand-built Equal Earth map with a fixed area scale, site labels, legends and a per-country header // Color: environment, from envColor view1 = { const width = 928, height = 520; const color = d3.scaleOrdinal(envColor.domain, envColor.range); const r = d3.scaleSqrt([0, 62], [0, 26]); const projection = d3.geoEqualEarth().fitExtent([[2, 58], [width - 2, height - 2]], {type: "Sphere"}); const path = d3.geoPath(projection); // Transformation: this year's tests counted per site and environment; earlier sites listed once each const now = tests.filter(d => d.year === year); const circles = d3.rollups(now.filter(d => sites.has(d.site)), v => v.length, d => d.site, d => d.env) .flatMap(([site, envs]) => envs.map(([env, n]) => ({...sites.get(site), env, n}))) .sort((a, b) => b.n - a.n); const earlier = [...new Set(tests.filter(d => d.year < year).map(d => d.site))].map(s => sites.get(s)).filter(Boolean); const byCountry = d3.rollups(now, v => [v.length, v.filter(d => d.env === "above ground").length], d => d.country) .sort((a, b) => b[1][0] - a[1][0]); const pretty = {USA: "USA", USSR: "USSR", FRANCE: "France", UK: "UK", CHINA: "China", INDIA: "India", PAKIST: "Pakistan"}; const svg = d3.create("svg").attr("viewBox", [0, 0, width, height]).attr("width", width) .attr("style", "max-width:100%;height:auto;font:12px var(--sans-serif, system-ui)"); svg.append("text").attr("x", 4).attr("y", 26).attr("font-size", 26).attr("font-weight", 700).text(year); svg.append("text").attr("x", 76).attr("y", 24).attr("font-size", 14).attr("fill", "#333") .text(byCountry.length ? byCountry.map(([c, [n, a]]) => `${pretty[c]} ${n}${a ? ` (${a} above ground)` : ""}`).join(" · ") : "No tests this year"); svg.append("path").datum({type: "Sphere"}).attr("d", path).attr("fill", "#fff").attr("stroke", "#ccc"); svg.append("path").datum(land).attr("d", path).attr("fill", "#ececec"); svg.append("g").attr("fill", "#888").selectAll("circle").data(earlier).join("circle") .attr("transform", d => `translate(${projection([d.lon, d.lat])})`).attr("r", 1.8) .append("title").text(d => `${d.label}: used before ${year}`); svg.append("g").attr("stroke", "#fff").attr("stroke-width", 0.8).selectAll("circle").data(circles).join("circle") .attr("transform", d => `translate(${projection([d.lon, d.lat])})`) .attr("r", d => Math.max(2, r(d.n))).attr("fill", d => color(d.env)).attr("fill-opacity", 0.8) .append("title").text(d => `${d.label}, ${year}\n${d.n} ${d.env} test${d.n > 1 ? "s" : ""}`); // labels for sites with 10 or more tests in the year, total across environments const totals = d3.rollups(circles, v => d3.sum(v, d => d.n), d => d.site).filter(([, n]) => n >= 10); svg.append("g").attr("text-anchor", "middle").attr("font-weight", 600).selectAll("text").data(totals).join("text") .attr("transform", ([s, n]) => { const [x, y] = projection([sites.get(s).lon, sites.get(s).lat]); return `translate(${Math.max(60, Math.min(width - 60, x))},${y - r(n) - 5})`; }) .attr("paint-order", "stroke").attr("stroke", "#fff").attr("stroke-width", 3) .text(([s, n]) => `${sites.get(s).label} ${n}`); svg.append("text").attr("x", width - 4).attr("y", height - 4).attr("text-anchor", "end").attr("fill", "#666").attr("font-size", 10) .text("Source: Bergkvist and Ferm (2000), FOA/SIPRI, Nuclear Explosions 1945–1998"); // legends: environment and size const legend = svg.append("g").attr("transform", `translate(16, ${height - 118})`); envColor.domain.forEach((env, i) => { legend.append("circle").attr("cx", 6).attr("cy", i * 18).attr("r", 6).attr("fill", color(env)); legend.append("text").attr("x", 18).attr("y", i * 18 + 4).text(env); }); legend.append("circle").attr("cx", 6).attr("cy", 54).attr("r", 1.8).attr("fill", "#888"); legend.append("text").attr("x", 18).attr("y", 58).text("site used in an earlier year"); const sizes = svg.append("g").attr("transform", `translate(250, ${height - 14})`).attr("fill", "none").attr("stroke", "#666"); [5, 20, 50].forEach((n, i) => { sizes.append("circle").attr("cx", i * 62).attr("cy", -r(n)).attr("r", r(n)); sizes.append("text").attr("x", i * 62).attr("y", -2 * r(n) - 4).attr("text-anchor", "middle").attr("fill", "#333").attr("stroke", "none").text(`${n} tests`); }); return svg.node(); }3f:T8e2,// Interactive: the black rule follows the year chosen in View 1 // Color: environment, from envColor view2 = { const order = ["USA", "USSR", "FRANCE", "UK", "CHINA"]; const pretty = {USA: "USA", USSR: "USSR", FRANCE: "France", UK: "UK", CHINA: "China"}; // Transformation: count tests per country, year and environment const rows = d3.rollups(tests.filter(d => order.includes(d.country)), v => v.length, d => d.country, d => d.year, d => d.env) .flatMap(([country, years]) => years.flatMap(([yr, envs]) => envs.map(([env, n]) => ({country, year: yr, env, n})))); const totals = d3.rollups(tests.filter(d => order.includes(d.country)), v => v.length, d => d.country).map(([country, n]) => ({country, n})); return Plot.plot({ title: "Nuclear tests per year by country and environment, 1945–1998", caption: "Source: Bergkvist and Ferm (2000), FOA/SIPRI, Nuclear Explosions 1945–1998. India (3) and Pakistan (2) not shown.", width: 928, height: 560, marginLeft: 70, marginRight: 20, x: {label: null, tickFormat: "d", domain: [1945, 1999], ticks: d3.range(1945, 2000, 5)}, y: {label: "Tests per year", grid: true, ticks: 3}, fy: {domain: order, label: null, axis: null, padding: 0.18}, color: {...envColor, legend: true}, marks: [ Plot.gridY({strokeOpacity: 0.07, ticks: 3}), Plot.rectY(rows, {x1: "year", x2: d => d.year + 1, y: "n", fy: "country", fill: "env", insetLeft: 0.4, insetRight: 0.4, order: ["underground", "cratering", "above ground"], title: d => `${pretty[d.country]} ${d.year}: ${d.n} ${d.env}`}), Plot.ruleY([0]), Plot.ruleX([1963 + 216 / 365, 1976 + 90 / 365], {stroke: "#555", strokeDasharray: "3,3"}), Plot.ruleX([year + 0.5], {stroke: "#000", strokeWidth: 1.5}), Plot.text(totals, {fy: "country", frameAnchor: "top-left", dx: -64, dy: 2, text: d => `${pretty[d.country]}\n${d.n.toLocaleString()} tests`, fontWeight: 600, textAnchor: "start", lineHeight: 1.2}), Plot.text([{fy: "USA", x: 1963.6, label: "Partial Test Ban\nTreaty, Aug 1963"}, {fy: "USA", x: 1976.25, label: "150 kt limit,\nMar 1976"}], {fy: "fy", x: "x", frameAnchor: "top", dx: 4, dy: 2, text: "label", textAnchor: "start", fill: "#333", lineHeight: 1.1}) ] }); }40:T145f,// D3 customization: two hand-built panels with a shared time axis, log yield axes, range lines, a shaded treaty band and annotations // Color: environment, from envColor view3 = { const width = 928, panelH = 250, gap = 46, m = {top: 30, right: 20, bottom: 30, left: 70}; const height = m.top + 2 * panelH + gap + m.bottom; const color = d3.scaleOrdinal(envColor.domain, envColor.range); const floor = 0.0001; const x = d3.scaleUtc([new Date(Date.UTC(1945, 0, 1)), new Date(Date.UTC(1993, 0, 1))], [m.left, width - m.right]); // Transformation: log scale for yield, with zero yields moved to the floor const y = d3.scaleLog([floor, 1e5], [panelH, 0]); const fmt = d3.utcFormat("%-d %b %Y"); const ptbt = new Date(Date.UTC(1963, 7, 5)), ttbt = new Date(Date.UTC(1976, 2, 31)); const notes = {USA: [{date: new Date(Date.UTC(1954, 1, 28)), kt: 15000, text: "Bravo, 1954: 15,000 kt"}], USSR: [{date: new Date(Date.UTC(1961, 9, 30)), kt: 50000, text: "30 Oct 1961: 50,000 kt"}]}; const svg = d3.create("svg").attr("viewBox", [0, 0, width, height + 16]).attr("width", width) .attr("style", "max-width:100%;height:auto;font:11px var(--sans-serif, system-ui)"); ["USA", "USSR"].forEach((country, i) => { const g = svg.append("g").attr("transform", `translate(0,${m.top + i * (panelH + gap)})`); const data = tests.filter(d => d.country === country && !Number.isNaN(d.hi)); g.append("rect").attr("x", x(ttbt)).attr("width", x.range()[1] - x(ttbt)).attr("height", panelH).attr("fill", "#f2f2f2"); g.append("g").attr("transform", `translate(${m.left},0)`) .call(d3.axisLeft(y).tickValues([floor, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 150, 1000, 10000, 100000]).tickFormat(d => d === floor ? "0" : d3.format(",")(d))) .call(g => g.select(".domain").remove()) .call(g => g.selectAll(".tick line").clone().attr("x2", width - m.left - m.right).attr("stroke-opacity", 0.08)); g.append("text").attr("x", m.left - 62).attr("y", -12).attr("font-weight", 700).attr("font-size", 13) .text(`${country}: ${data.length.toLocaleString()} tests with a yield estimate`); if (i === 0) g.append("text").attr("x", m.left - 62).attr("y", panelH / 2).attr("transform", `rotate(-90 ${m.left - 52} ${panelH / 2})`) .attr("text-anchor", "middle").text("Yield, kilotons (log scale)"); g.append("line").attr("x1", m.left).attr("x2", width - m.right).attr("y1", y(150)).attr("y2", y(150)).attr("stroke", "#000"); g.append("text").attr("x", width - m.right).attr("y", y(150) - 4).attr("text-anchor", "end").attr("font-weight", 600) .attr("paint-order", "stroke").attr("stroke", "#fff").attr("stroke-width", 3).text("150 kt limit"); for (const [date, label] of [[ptbt, "Partial Test Ban Treaty"], [ttbt, "150 kt limit begins"]]) { g.append("line").attr("x1", x(date)).attr("x2", x(date)).attr("y2", panelH).attr("stroke", "#555").attr("stroke-dasharray", "3,3"); if (i === 0) g.append("text").attr("x", x(date) + 4).attr("y", 10).text(label); } if (showRanges) g.append("g").attr("stroke-width", 0.6).attr("stroke-opacity", 0.3) .selectAll("line").data(data.filter(d => d.lo > 0 && d.lo < d.hi)).join("line") .attr("x1", d => x(d.date)).attr("x2", d => x(d.date)).attr("y1", d => y(d.hi)).attr("y2", d => y(d.lo)).attr("stroke", d => color(d.env)); g.append("g").selectAll("circle").data(data).join("circle") .attr("cx", d => x(d.date)).attr("cy", d => y(Math.max(d.hi, floor))).attr("r", 2.4) .attr("fill", d => d.hi > 0 ? color(d.env) : "none").attr("stroke", d => d.hi > 0 ? "none" : color(d.env)).attr("fill-opacity", 0.75) .append("title").text(d => `${d.name}, ${fmt(d.date)}\n${d.type} (${d.env})\nyield: ${d.lo > 0 && d.lo < d.hi ? `${d.lo} to ${d.hi}` : d.lo === 0 && d.hi > 0 ? `up to ${d.hi}` : d.hi} kt`); for (const n of notes[country]) g.append("text").attr("x", x(n.date) - 6).attr("y", y(n.kt) + 4).attr("text-anchor", "end").attr("font-weight", 600) .attr("paint-order", "stroke").attr("stroke", "#fff").attr("stroke-width", 3).text(n.text); // Interactive: the black line follows the year chosen in View 1 g.append("line").attr("x1", x(new Date(Date.UTC(year, 6, 1)))).attr("x2", x(new Date(Date.UTC(year, 6, 1)))).attr("y2", panelH).attr("stroke", "#000").attr("stroke-width", 1.5).attr("opacity", year <= 1992 ? 1 : 0); g.append("g").attr("transform", `translate(0,${panelH})`).call(d3.axisBottom(x).ticks(d3.utcYear.every(5))); }); const zeros = tests.filter(d => (d.country === "USA" || d.country === "USSR") && d.hi === 0).length; const missing = tests.filter(d => (d.country === "USA" || d.country === "USSR") && Number.isNaN(d.hi)).length; svg.append("text").attr("x", width - m.right).attr("y", height - 2).attr("text-anchor", "end").attr("fill", "#555") .text(`${zeros} tests with an upper yield of 0 are drawn as hollow circles on the line marked 0; ${missing} test${missing === 1 ? "" : "s"} with no yield left out.`); svg.append("text").attr("x", width - m.right).attr("y", height + 12).attr("text-anchor", "end").attr("fill", "#555").text("Source: Bergkvist and Ferm (2000), FOA/SIPRI, Nuclear Explosions 1945–1998"); return svg.node(); }41:T66d,### Was the hypothesis supported? Yes, on all three counts. * **Underground, not less.** The last above-ground tests were Soviet in December 1962 and American in June 1963, before the treaty was signed. From 5 August 1963 on, the 4 U.S. cratering shots of 1965 and 1968 are the only U.S. or Soviet tests not fully underground. The two countries ran 514 tests in the ten years with tests from 1951 to 1962 (51 a year) and 646 from 1964 to 1975 (54 a year). The U.S. tested more after the treaty than before: 433 tests against 294. * **Under 150 kt.** The U.S. set off 9 tests above 150 kt in the three months before 31 March 1976 and none after. In 517 U.S. and Soviet tests from that date to the U.S.'s last test in September 1992, the highest upper estimate is exactly 150 kt. * **The comparison group.** France and China did not sign in 1963, and View 2 shows their vermillion bars continuing: France's last above-ground test was in 1974 and China's in 1980. 69 above-ground tests took place after the treaty, and all of them were French or Chinese. **A caution, after Cairo's *The Truthful Art*.** The treaty dates line up with the changes, and the two countries that did not sign kept testing in the open air for 11 and 17 more years, but that is a pattern, not proof. The U.S. had already moved 54 of its 96 tests in 1962 underground before any treaty, so part of the shift was under way. The 150 kt figures are estimates, many of them by seismic agencies outside the testing country, and 185 of the 517 tests are listed at exactly 150 kt, a figure that may partly reflect how yields were reported near the limit rather than a measurement.42:T5de,// Color: copies of the final views under simulated protanopia cvdImages = { // Color: Machado, Oliveira and Fernandes (2009) protanopia matrix, severity 1.0, applied in linear RGB to every // fill and stroke of a copy of each live final view (recoloring the copy works in any browser, unlike an SVG filter) const M = [[0.152286, 1.052583, -0.204868], [0.114503, 0.786281, 0.099216], [-0.003882, -0.048116, 1.051998]]; const lin = c => (c /= 255) <= 0.04045 ? c / 12.92 : ((c + 0.055) / 1.055) ** 2.4; const gam = c => 255 * (c <= 0.0031308 ? 12.92 * c : 1.055 * c ** (1 / 2.4) - 0.055); const protan = color => { const c = d3.rgb(color); if (!color || color === "none" || color === "currentColor" || Number.isNaN(c.r)) return color; const v = [c.r, c.g, c.b].map(lin); const [r, g, b] = M.map(row => gam(Math.max(0, Math.min(1, row[0] * v[0] + row[1] * v[1] + row[2] * v[2])))); return d3.rgb(r, g, b, c.opacity).formatHex(); }; const simulate = node => { const copy = node.cloneNode(true); for (const el of [copy, ...copy.querySelectorAll("*")]) for (const a of ["fill", "stroke"]) if (el.hasAttribute?.(a)) el.setAttribute(a, protan(el.getAttribute(a))); return copy; }; return html`

${[["View 1", view1], ["View 2", view2], ["View 3", view3]].map(([name, node]) => html`

${simulate(node)}

${name}, simulated protanopia (follows the year control)

`)}

`; }43:T466,### Data transformations in the visualization Every transformation runs in the notebook on the raw CSV; nothing was aggregated beforehand. Each is marked `// Transformation:` in the code. * **Classification:** the `ENV` cell groups the 20 deployment types into three environments, and `tests` applies it to every row. * **Cleaning:** `tests` parses dates, turns "NA" into missing values, and moves 19 of the 24 tests recorded at 0°, 0° to the median position of their test site; the other 5 are Soviet tests at sites with no recorded position, which the maps leave out. * **Aggregation:** `d3.rollups` counts tests per site and environment for the maps (Revision 3, View 1), and per country, year and environment for the bars (Revisions 4 and 5, View 2). These counts are recomputed every time the year changes. * **Scaling:** yield is put on a log scale (View 3), and zero yields are moved to a separate line marked 0, below the smallest real yield (0.0002 kt), and drawn hollow instead of being dropped. Circle area uses a square-root scale with a domain fixed at 62 tests, so a circle's size means the same in every year.44:T490,### What is wrong with Revision 2 * **Yield spans eight orders of magnitude, so area cannot hold it.** It runs from 0.0002 kt to the Soviet test of 30 October 1961 at 50,000 kt. With area proportional to yield, one Pacific shot like Bravo (15,000 kt, Bikini, 1954) covers the Marshall Islands while the 928 Nevada tests, most under 150 kt, shrink to specks. * **Hue is spent on a dimension position already shows.** Nevada is American and Semipalatinsk is Soviet; the map says so without color. Meanwhile the dimension the hypothesis turns on, environment, has no channel at all. Plot's default scheme gives the seven countries seven hues with no legend, and the pink, purple and blue it uses are close in lightness, so they merge for many colorblind viewers. * **54 years are printed on top of each other.** The treaties are events in time, and a single static frame has no time axis, so the move underground after 1963 cannot appear. * **There is no legend for size or color,** so the viewer cannot tell what a disc of a given size means. **Next:** show one year at a time with a slider, count tests per site instead of sizing by yield, and give hue to environment.45:T48c,### What is wrong with Revision 6 * **Year as the x value stacks a whole year in one column.** The 96 U.S. tests of 1962 sit on one vertical line. Worse, the limit began on 31 March 1976, and the 9 U.S. tests above 150 kt from January to March 1976 share a column with the tests after the limit, so the chart appears to show the U.S. breaking the treaty. The x value must be the date. * **The two countries share one panel.** The claim is that *neither* side broke the limit, so each needs its own panel. * **Zeros vanish without notice.** 21 U.S. and Soviet tests have an upper yield of 0, and a log scale cannot draw them; Plot drops them silently, which hides data from the viewer. * **Only the upper estimate is drawn.** 525 U.S. and Soviet tests have a yield range, such as 20 to 150 kt, and the dot claims a precision the source does not give. * **The axis is hard to read and the key lines are unlabeled.** Plot's default log ticks print "100m" and "1m" (SI prefixes, meaning 0.1 and 0.001 kt), a puzzle for a reader who expects kilotons, and neither the 150 kt line nor the treaty dates carry a label. **Next:** the final views at the top of the notebook.46:[] 38:{"id":"84d5573e7d643777","slug":"nuclear-tests-1945-to-1998-did-the-treaties-stop-the-testing-or-move-it","title":"Nuclear Tests, 1945 to 1998: Did the Treaties Stop the Testing or Move It?","thumbnail":"cb6045d7843e24655e43847050d9f22c53465350a572155feb401b684aa3e210","access_level":"public","create_time":"$D2026-11-01T00:32:38.817Z","update_time":"$D2026-11-01T00:59:08.189Z","view_time":null,"first_public_time":"$D2026-11-01T00:52:07.401Z","has_unpublished_edits":null,"fork":false,"stars":0,"starred":false,"owner":{"type":"team","id":"dff9b5e6e979adb0","login":"dlw272","name":"Dusty Wolfe Synek","avatar_url":null,"tier":"starter_2024","bio":"","followed_by_you":false,"follows_you":false},"version":309,"publish_version":309,"role":null,"authored":false,"authors":[{"type":"individual","id":"318cf45c19986f2e","login":"dlw272","name":"Dusty Wolfe Synek","avatar_url":null,"tier":null,"bio":"","followed_by_you":false,"follows_you":false}],"members":[{"type":"team","id":"dff9b5e6e979adb0","login":"dlw272","name":"Dusty Wolfe Synek","avatar_url":null,"tier":"starter_2024","role":"editor"}],"comments":[],"custom_thumbnail":false,"trashed":false,"lapsed":null,"subscribed":null,"forks":0,"collection":null,"type":"notebook","body":{"titling":"auto","title":"Nuclear Tests, 1945 to 1998: Did the Treaties Stop the Testing or Move It?","cells":[{"id":1,"value":"$3c","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":29,"value":"## Final Views\n\nThe three views share one year control. Press **Play** or drag the slider just above the map: the map shows *where* tests happened that year, the solid black line in View 2 shows *when* that year falls against each country's history, and the black line in View 3 marks the same year among the yields.\n\n### View 1. Where the tests were, one year at a time (from Revision 3)\nEach colored circle is one site in the chosen year, with area proportional to its number of tests on a scale fixed across all years. Small gray dots are sites used in earlier years. Hover over a circle for its counts. Five Soviet tests from 1968 to 1985 have no recorded location; they are counted in the header line but not drawn.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":30,"value":"$3d","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":31,"value":"$3e","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":32,"value":"### View 2. When each country tested, and how (from Revision 5)\nOne panel per country on a shared scale, so heights compare directly across panels. The dashed vertical lines are the two treaties; the black line is the year chosen in View 1. India (3 tests, 1974 and 1998) and Pakistan (2 tests, 1998) are left out because they are too few to draw.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":33,"value":"$3f","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":34,"value":"### View 3. How big each U.S. and Soviet test was (from Revision 6)\nEach dot is one test, placed by its date and its upper yield estimate on a log scale. With **Show yield ranges** on, a thin line runs down to the lower estimate. Tests with an upper yield of 0 are drawn as hollow circles on a separate line marked 0 at the bottom, because a log scale has no zero. The shaded band is the period under the 150 kt limit; hover over a dot for the test's name, date, type and yield.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":35,"value":"// Interactive: toggles the lower-to-upper yield ranges in View 3\nviewof showRanges = Inputs.toggle({label: \"Show yield ranges\", value: true})","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":36,"value":"$40","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":43,"value":"$41","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":42,"value":"### Interactive components\n* **`viewof year`** is a custom form with a Play/Pause button and a slider. Play steps one year every 600 ms. The one value drives all three final views: the map redraws, and a black line moves through Views 2 and 3, so the viewer can see the same year in space, in time and in size.\n* **`viewof showRanges`** turns View 3's yield-range lines on and off.\n* **`viewof yearR3`** is Revision 3's plain slider, kept to show the step the final control grew from.\n* Every circle and bar has a tooltip with its exact values.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":37,"value":"### Color justification\nColor carries one dimension in every chart from Revision 3 on: the test environment. Above ground is vermillion (`#D55E00`) and underground is blue (`#0072B2`), a pair from the Okabe-Ito palette, which Okabe and Ito designed to stay distinct for viewers with red-green color blindness. The two differ in lightness as well as hue, so they also separate in grayscale. Vermillion is the warmer, louder color, and it marks the tests that put fallout in the air; the eye finds them first, which follows Tufte's *layering and separation*. The 9 cratering shots are gray (`#999999`): they were buried but broke the surface, so giving them either side's color would misclassify them. Land is a pale gray and the treaty lines are dark gray, so neither competes with the data. Country is never colored after Revision 2; it is shown by position (a panel or a map location), Munzner's most effective channel, which frees hue for the variable the hypothesis is about.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":38,"value":"### Accessibility\nBelow, each final view is shown again under simulated protanopia (no red cones), made by applying the color matrix of Machado, Oliveira and Fernandes (2009) at severity 1.0 to a copy of the live chart; the copies follow the year control. Static screenshots made the same way are saved with the project (`view1-protanopia.png` to `view3-protanopia.png`). Vermillion turns olive-gold and blue stays blue, so above-ground and underground tests remain two different colors, and gray stays gray. Nothing in the views depends on color alone: the year, counts and labels are text, the 150 kt limit is a line, and zero yields are hollow.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":39,"value":"$42","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":40,"value":"$43","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":41,"value":"### D3 customization\nView 1 and View 3 are built with D3 directly, not with a chart library's defaults. View 1 is an Equal Earth projection (`d3.geoEqualEarth`, chosen because it keeps areas true, so Pacific and Asian test sites are not shrunk or stretched as on a Mercator map) with hand-placed legends, site labels that grow above their circles, a white halo behind each label, and a header line that is rebuilt every year. View 3 draws two panels with one shared `d3.scaleUtc` time axis and separate `d3.scaleLog` yield axes, custom tick values that include 150 kt, a shaded band for the period under the limit, range lines, hollow markers for zero yields, and annotations for the two largest tests. Each D3 cell is marked `// D3 customization:` in the code.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":45,"value":"## Exploration and the Visual Editing Process\nThe six revisions below show how the final views above were reached, starting from Observable Plot's default dot plot. Each ends with what was wrong with it, in the terms of Tufte, Munzner and Cairo, and what the next revision changes.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":10,"value":"## Revision 1: Observable Plot's default dot plot\n\nThe starting point is the basic example in the [Observable Plot dot mark documentation](https://observablehq.com/plot/marks/dot): one dot per row, two columns on x and y, no other options. Here x is longitude and y is latitude.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":11,"value":"Plot.dot(tests, {x: \"lon\", y: \"lat\"}).plot()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":12,"value":"### What is wrong with Revision 1\n* **Position, Munzner's most effective channel, carries geography with no reference.** Without a coastline or a projection the dense cluster near x = −116, y = 37 cannot be read as Nevada, and Plot squeezes 360 degrees of longitude and 140 of latitude into a box of its own default shape.\n* **Overplotting hides almost all of the data.** The Nevada Test Site alone holds 928 tests and Semipalatinsk 455, and each draws as one black blot. The chart has 2,051 marks but shows about 79 places: Tufte's data density is an illusion here.\n* **Six of the eight dimensions are missing.** The hypothesis is about time, environment and yield, and none of them is encoded.\n* **It is not self-documenting.** The axes read \"lon\" and \"lat\", and there is no title, unit or source.\n\n**Next:** draw land on an equal-area projection, size each test by yield, and color by country.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":13,"value":"## Revision 2: A world map, sized by yield, colored by country","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":14,"value":"// Color: Plot's default categorical scheme on country (replaced from Revision 3 on)\nPlot.plot({\n projection: \"equal-earth\",\n width: 928,\n r: {range: [0, 30]},\n marks: [\n Plot.sphere({stroke: \"#ccc\"}),\n Plot.geo(land, {fill: \"#eee\"}),\n Plot.dot(tests, {x: \"lon\", y: \"lat\", r: \"hi\", fill: \"country\", fillOpacity: 0.5})\n ]\n})","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":15,"value":"$44","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":16,"value":"## Revision 3: One year at a time, colored by environment\n\nDrag the slider. Each circle is one site in the chosen year, with area proportional to the number of tests there (the scale is fixed at 62 tests, the most at one site in one year, so circles are comparable across years).","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":17,"value":"// Interactive: Revision 3's own year slider\nviewof yearR3 = Inputs.range([1945, 1998], {step: 1, value: 1962, label: \"Year\"})","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":18,"value":"// Color: environment, from envColor\n{\n // Transformation: filter to one year and count tests per site and environment\n const counts = d3.rollups(tests.filter(d => d.year === yearR3 && sites.has(d.site)), v => v.length, d => d.site, d => d.env)\n .flatMap(([site, envs]) => envs.map(([env, n]) => ({...sites.get(site), env, n})));\n return Plot.plot({\n projection: \"equal-earth\",\n width: 928,\n r: {domain: [0, 62], range: [0, 24]},\n color: {...envColor, legend: true},\n marks: [\n Plot.sphere({stroke: \"#ccc\"}),\n Plot.geo(land, {fill: \"#eee\"}),\n Plot.dot(counts, {x: \"lon\", y: \"lat\", r: \"n\", fill: \"env\", fillOpacity: 0.7, sort: {channel: \"-r\"}})\n ]\n });\n}","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":19,"value":"### What is wrong with Revision 3\n* **The comparison the hypothesis needs is across time, and animation makes it a memory test.** Munzner's rule is that eyes beat memory: to compare 1962 (178 tests, 117 of the U.S. and Soviet ones above ground) with 1964 (60 tests, none above ground for either), the viewer has to hold one frame in mind while dragging to the other.\n* **Counts are only readable as circle areas,** which Munzner ranks below position and length. A viewer cannot say from the map whether the U.S. tested 96 or 60 times in 1962.\n* **There is no size legend and no year on the chart,** so a screenshot of one frame is not self-documenting.\n* **Earlier activity vanishes.** In 1964 the map shows nothing at Bikini or Christmas Island, but nothing says those sites were ever used.\n\n**Next:** put time on an axis: a bar per year, split by environment.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":20,"value":"## Revision 4: Tests per year, stacked by environment","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":21,"value":"// Color: environment, from envColor\n{\n // Transformation: count tests per year and environment with d3.rollup, flattened to long rows\n const rows = d3.rollups(tests, v => v.length, d => d.year, d => d.env)\n .flatMap(([year, envs]) => envs.map(([env, n]) => ({year, env, n})));\n return Plot.plot({\n width: 928,\n height: 300,\n x: {label: \"Year\", tickFormat: \"d\"},\n y: {label: \"Tests per year\", grid: true},\n color: {...envColor, legend: true},\n marks: [\n Plot.rectY(rows, {x1: \"year\", x2: d => d.year + 1, y: \"n\", fill: \"env\", order: [\"underground\", \"cratering\", \"above ground\"], insetLeft: 0.5, insetRight: 0.5}),\n Plot.ruleY([0])\n ]\n });\n}","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":22,"value":"### What is wrong with Revision 4\n* **Pooling all seven countries hides the comparison group.** After 5 August 1963 there are 69 above-ground tests in this chart, and every one is French (46) or Chinese (23). In the pooled bars they could be read as American or Soviet tests that broke the treaty.\n* **The above-ground segment floats on the underground one.** Cleveland and McGill, as summarized by Munzner, rank position on a common scale above position on unaligned scales; here only the bottom segment shares a baseline, so the above-ground counts are hard to compare from year to year.\n* **The treaties are not on the chart.** The hypothesis is a before-and-after claim, and the viewer has to know the dates to find the break. Tufte's advice is to put the annotation on the graphic, next to the data it explains.\n\n**Next:** small multiples, one panel per country, with the treaty dates drawn in.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":23,"value":"## Revision 5: Small multiples by country","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":24,"value":"// Color: environment, from envColor\n{\n // Transformation: count tests per country, year and environment\n const rows = d3.rollups(tests.filter(d => [\"USA\", \"USSR\", \"FRANCE\", \"UK\", \"CHINA\"].includes(d.country)), v => v.length, d => d.country, d => d.year, d => d.env)\n .flatMap(([country, years]) => years.flatMap(([year, envs]) => envs.map(([env, n]) => ({country, year, env, n}))));\n return Plot.plot({\n width: 928,\n height: 520,\n x: {label: \"Year\", tickFormat: \"d\"},\n y: {label: \"Tests per year\", grid: true},\n fy: {domain: [\"USA\", \"USSR\", \"FRANCE\", \"UK\", \"CHINA\"], label: null},\n color: {...envColor, legend: true},\n marks: [\n Plot.rectY(rows, {x1: \"year\", x2: d => d.year + 1, y: \"n\", fy: \"country\", fill: \"env\", order: [\"underground\", \"cratering\", \"above ground\"]}),\n Plot.ruleX([1963.6, 1976.25], {stroke: \"#333\", strokeDasharray: \"3,3\"}),\n Plot.ruleY([0])\n ]\n });\n}","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":25,"value":"### What is wrong with Revision 5\n* **The dashed lines are not labeled.** A viewer who does not know the treaty dates sees two unexplained lines; the label should sit on the chart, in the top panel, where Tufte would put it.\n* **The panel labels are raw codes on the far right.** \"USSR\" and \"CHINA\" in capitals, set away from the bars they name, are the first thing a viewer reads and the last thing they find.\n* **Grid lines run across every panel at the same weight as the data.** With the y axis shared, the UK and China never pass 10 tests a year, so in those panels the grid lines outnumber the bars. Tufte would mute them.\n* **This view cannot test the second half of the hypothesis.** The 150 kt limit is about the size of each test, and counts per year say nothing about yield.\n\n**Next:** plot every U.S. and Soviet test by its yield, on a log scale, with the 150 kt line.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":26,"value":"## Revision 6: Yield of each U.S. and Soviet test, log scale","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":27,"value":"// Color: environment, from envColor\nPlot.plot({\n width: 928,\n height: 360,\n x: {label: \"Year\", tickFormat: \"d\"},\n // Transformation: log scale for yield (Plot drops the zero yields)\n y: {type: \"log\", label: \"Yield (kt)\", grid: true},\n color: {...envColor, legend: true},\n marks: [\n Plot.dot(tests.filter(d => d.country === \"USA\" || d.country === \"USSR\"), {x: \"year\", y: \"hi\", fill: \"env\", r: 2.5}),\n Plot.ruleY([150])\n ]\n})","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":28,"value":"$45","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":44,"value":"## Appendix: data and helper cells\nThese cells load the data and build the tables every chart above uses. Observable runs cells in dependency order, so they can sit at the end of the notebook.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":2,"value":"topojson = import(\"https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/topojson-client@3/+esm\")","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":3,"value":"// the TidyTuesday copy of the SIPRI/FOA table, loaded unchanged\nraw = d3.csv(\"https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rfordatascience/tidytuesday/master/data/2019/2019-08-20/nuclear_explosions.csv\")","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":4,"value":"world = d3.json(\"https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/world-atlas@2.0.2/land-110m.json\")","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":5,"value":"land = topojson.feature(world, world.objects.land)","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":6,"value":"// Transformation: the 20 deployment types grouped into three environments\nENV = ({\"SHAFT\":\"underground\",\"SHAFT/GR\":\"underground\",\"SHAFT/LG\":\"underground\",\"TUNNEL\":\"underground\",\"GALLERY\":\"underground\",\"UG\":\"underground\",\"MINE\":\"underground\",\"CRATER\":\"cratering\",\"ATMOSPH\":\"above ground\",\"AIRDROP\":\"above ground\",\"TOWER\":\"above ground\",\"BALLOON\":\"above ground\",\"ROCKET\":\"above ground\",\"SPACE\":\"above ground\",\"SURFACE\":\"above ground\",\"BARGE\":\"above ground\",\"SHIP\":\"above ground\",\"UW\":\"above ground\",\"WATERSUR\":\"above ground\",\"WATER SU\":\"above ground\"})","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":7,"value":"// Color: one scale for every chart. Okabe-Ito blue and vermillion for the two environments the hypothesis\n// compares; neutral gray for the 9 cratering shots, which were neither clearly above nor below ground.\nenvColor = ({domain: [\"above ground\", \"underground\", \"cratering\"], range: [\"#D55E00\", \"#0072B2\", \"#999999\"]})","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":8,"value":"tests = {\n // Transformation: parse dates and numbers, \"NA\" to NaN, environment from ENV\n const parse = d3.utcParse(\"%Y%m%d\");\n const num = v => (v === \"NA\" || v === \"\" ? NaN : +v);\n const rows = raw.map(r => ({\n date: parse(r.date_long),\n year: +r.year,\n country: r.country,\n site: r.region,\n name: r.name === \"NA\" ? \"unnamed\" : r.name,\n type: r.type,\n env: ENV[r.type],\n lat: +r.latitude,\n lon: +r.longitude,\n lo: num(r.yield_lower),\n hi: num(r.yield_upper)\n }));\n // Transformation: 24 rows sit at 0°, 0° (location missing); move 19 to their site's median position.\n // The other 5 are at sites with no recorded position, and the `sites` map leaves them out.\n const known = d3.rollup(rows.filter(d => d.lat !== 0 || d.lon !== 0), v => [d3.median(v, d => d.lon), d3.median(v, d => d.lat)], d => d.site);\n for (const d of rows) if (d.lat === 0 && d.lon === 0 && known.has(d.site)) [d.lon, d.lat] = known.get(d.site);\n return rows;\n}","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":9,"value":"// Transformation: one position and a readable name per test site (79 sites)\nsites = {\n const names = {\"NTS\": \"Nevada\", \"SEMI KAZAKH\": \"Semipalatinsk\", \"MURUROA\": \"Mururoa\", \"NZ RUSS\": \"Novaya Zemlya\",\n \"LOP NOR\": \"Lop Nur\", \"ENEWETAK\": \"Enewetak\", \"CHRISTMAS IS\": \"Christmas Island\", \"BIKINI\": \"Bikini\",\n \"FANGATAUFA\": \"Fangataufa\", \"JOHNSTON IS\": \"Johnston Island\", \"IN ECKER ALG\": \"In Ecker\", \"REGGANE ALG\": \"Reggane\",\n \"MARALI AUSTR\": \"Maralinga\", \"AZGIR KAZAKH\": \"Azgir\", \"POKHRAN\": \"Pokhran\"};\n return new Map(d3.groups(tests.filter(d => d.lat !== 0 || d.lon !== 0), d => d.site)\n .map(([site, v]) => [site, {site, label: names[site] ?? site, lon: d3.median(v, d => d.lon), lat: d3.median(v, d => d.lat)}]));\n}","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"}],"files":"$W46","stdlib":"2"}} 33:null