25:["$","title",null,{"children":"Frozen Foundations | Vekta Group | Observable"}] 49:T6ca,Earth has experienced five ice ages: Huronian, Cryogenian, Andean-Saharan, late Paleozoic, and the latest Quaternary Ice Age. Within these ice ages are periods of more intense solar radiation in the Northern Hemisphere which result in warmer temperatures, reduced glacial extent and higher sea levels. These are known as interglacial periods. Glacial periods on the other hand are colder and drier, with continental and sea ice waxing and waning throughout the two phases. Earth is currently experiencing an interglacial period, known as the Holocene. Prior to the Holocene was a glacial period c. 120,000 to 11,500 years ago. During glacial periods, continental and sea ice extends much further south across the Northern Hemisphere than during interglacial periods, and is therefore apparent in many marine and terrestrial paleoclimate records around the world. The cyclical nature of the (inter)glacial periods drives extensive glacial erosion and deposition, resulting in a diverse and complex seabed geology with various sediment types and potential hazards for offshore wind farm development, including glacial clays, coarse marine sediments, peat deposits and glacial erratics. The last glacial maximum (LGM) occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch (c. 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago). While there is no formal period in geological time for the LGM (due to variations in individual maximums per ice sheet), the Global LGM can be defined through global sea level or marine isotope records (recording variations in oxygen levels which relate to fluctuations in temperatures). A visual representation of the Global LGM is shown on the interactive map below, alongside an outline of the North Sea and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ). 4a:T10f2,map = { let container = DOM.element('div', { style: `width:${width}px;height:${width/1.6}px` }); yield container; // Initialize the map let map = L.map(container).setView([55.600, 3.411], 5); // Add base tile layer let osmLayer = L.tileLayer("https://{s}.basemaps.cartocdn.com/light_all/{z}/{x}/{y}.png", { attribution: "© OpenStreetMap contributors, © CartoDB" }).addTo(map); // Add labels to layers function createInteractiveLayer(geojson, options = {}, label) { return L.geoJSON(geojson, { ...options, onEachFeature: (feature, layer) => { layer.on('click', () => { const props = feature.properties || {}; const content = `${label}
` + Object.entries(props).map(([k, v]) => `${k}: ${v}`).join('
'); layer.bindPopup(content).openPopup(); }); } }); } // Define data layers const layers = { "North Sea & LGM Wind Farms": createInteractiveLayer(windFarmsInNSeaAndLgm, { weight: 1, color: '#fff200' }, "North Sea & LGM Wind Farms"), "North Sea Wind Farms": createInteractiveLayer(windFarmsInNSea, { weight: 0.2, color: '#120b91' }, "North Sea Wind Farms"), "LGM Wind Farms": createInteractiveLayer(windFarmsInLgm, { weight: 0.2, color: '#a03d6b' }, "LGM Wind Farms"), "Global Wind Farms": createInteractiveLayer(windFarms, { weight: 0.2, color: '#7d8b8f' }, "Global Wind Farms"), "North Sea": createInteractiveLayer(northSea, { weight: 0, color: '#120b91' }, "North Sea"), "Last Glacial Maximum": createInteractiveLayer(lgm, { weight: 0, color: '#e25a99' }, "LGM"), "Exclusive Economic Zone": createInteractiveLayer(exclusiveEconomicZones, { weight: 1, color: '#7d8b8f' }, "Exclusive Economic Zone"), }; // Set the initial state of layers (which layers should be on by default) const initialLayersOn = [ "North Sea", "Last Glacial Maximum", "Exclusive Economic Zone" ]; // Add all layers to the map (we will handle initial visibility in the layer control) Object.entries(layers).forEach(([name, layer]) => { if (initialLayersOn.includes(name)) { layer.addTo(map); // These layers will be added to the map initially } }); // Create control for toggling layers and adding a legend const LayerControl = L.Control.extend({ onAdd: function() { const div = L.DomUtil.create('div', 'layer-control'); div.style.background = 'white'; div.style.padding = '6px'; div.style.borderRadius = '4px'; div.innerHTML = "Toggle Layers:
"; // Layer toggle checkboxes and legends Object.entries(layers).forEach(([name, layer]) => { // Create a container for each layer's toggle and legend const layerContainer = document.createElement('div'); layerContainer.style.display = 'flex'; layerContainer.style.alignItems = 'center'; layerContainer.style.marginBottom = '10px'; // Space between layers // Checkbox for toggling layer visibility const checkbox = document.createElement("input"); checkbox.type = "checkbox"; checkbox.checked = initialLayersOn.includes(name); // Set initial checkbox state checkbox.onchange = () => { if (checkbox.checked) { map.addLayer(layer); } else { map.removeLayer(layer); } }; // Color box for the layer style const colorBox = document.createElement('div'); colorBox.style.width = '13px'; colorBox.style.height = '13px'; colorBox.style.backgroundColor = layer.options.color; colorBox.style.marginRight = '6px'; // Label for the layer name const label = document.createElement("label"); label.htmlFor = name; label.textContent = " " + name; // Append everything to the layer container layerContainer.appendChild(checkbox); layerContainer.appendChild(colorBox); layerContainer.appendChild(label); // Append the layer container to the main div div.appendChild(layerContainer); }); return div; } }); // Add the control to the map map.addControl(new LayerControl({ position: 'bottomright' })); }4b:T63d,
The Venn diagram highlights the number of projects within the LGM (zoom out in the map above to see projects in North America, the Norwegian Sea and Gulf of Bothnia), at 304 (19% of the global total), compared to the number of projects within the North Sea, at 234 (15% of the global total), with only 91 (6% of the global total) projects satisfying both geographical constraints.

The 91 projects highlighted within the North Sea LGM are analysed below with regard to the different country policies whose offshore areas fall within this zone. Hover over each segment of the pie chart to display the number of projects per country within the North Sea LGM. The UK has a total of 66 projects, compared to only 1 from Germany.
It is interesting to note that less than 50% of the UK's offshore area (EEZ) is within the North Sea, yet more than half (56%) of UK projects are within this area, totalling 70% (n=66) of the North Sea LGM projects.
In comparison, Germany has 10 projects within the LGM (across the North Sea and Baltic Sea), only 12% of their total offshore wind projects. Germany is a good example to explore as not all of their EEZ is within the North Sea or LGM, similar to the UK, yet a much smaller proportion of their projects are within the North Sea LGM. This may be strategic siting from the German government to avoid the complex seabed conditions associated with historically glaciated regions. This raises the question as to whether the geological conditions posed by glacial environments are a hard constraint on offshore wind development.

4c:T42e,## A deeper dive into two UK projects: Dogger Bank and Berwick Bank Dogger Bank, located 120 km off the east coast of England in the Southern North Sea, is an area of shallow seabed. The Bank was formed as a result of extension and recession of icesheets, and contains complex glaciotectonic units, associated with thrust-block moraines, and evidence of fast-flowing ice streams preserved in landforms such as subglacially-streamlined bedforms. The moraines consist of reworked interglacial marine deposits, mostly comprising shelly clays with some sand and gravel.

Berwick Bank, situated 60 km off the coast of Scotland, is a similar feature shaped by multiple glaciations during the Quaternary period, providing insights into the British-Irish Ice Sheet.

Shallow water depths associated with both underwater geological complexes (an average of 25 m depths for the former and 50 m depths for the latter) are favourable conditions for offshore wind farm development due to the cost-effectiveness and ease of construction of fixed-bottom foundations. 4d:T555,## Implications While the Banks can be favourable locations for offshore wind development, they can also pose technical challenges. With a wide range of formations resulting from the multiple environments these Banks have experienced (fluvial, aeolian tundra, glacial), it can be difficult to quantify a shear strength value, which is critical to understand for drilling and foundation design. Glacial erratics and shallow channelling are also risks associated with developing in previously glaciated areas. Glacial erratics are large boulders deposited during glacial retreat, either buried or exposed, and result in challenges for anchoring or cable installation. Shallow channelling and small sand bodies are potential areas for shallow gas to accumulate, a geohazard which can seriously affect the drilling phase of projects.
Geophysical data collection and micro-routing during the planning stage can reduce the risk posed by both features. Whilst there are challenges posed by glacial deposits and landforms, it would appear that this constraint is not a limiting factor on offshore wind development. Water depth, distance to shore and grid connection are other constraints which developers initially consider during the early stages of development and it would seem these are much harder constraints, in the context of previously glaciated regions. 4e:T965,vennChart = { const div = DOM.element("div"); // Add a title above the Venn diagram const title = d3.select(div).append("h3") .html("Global Offshore Wind Projects (n=538) in the North Sea
and Last Glacial Maximum") .style("text-align", "center") .style("font-family", "Georgia, serif") .style("font-size", "20px"); // Create the Venn diagram const chart = venn.VennDiagram() .width(500) .height(300); const svg = d3.select(div) .datum(vennData) .call(chart); d3.select(div).selectAll("path") .style("fill", (d, i) => ["#00000", "#e25a99"][i]); d3.select(div).selectAll("text") .style("fill", "black") .style("font-size", "14px"); // Tooltip (create it once) const tooltip = d3.select("body").append("div") .attr("class", "tooltip") .style("position", "absolute") .style("background", "rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8)") .style("color", "white") .style("padding", "5px") .style("border-radius", "5px") .style("pointer-events", "none") .style("z-index", "1000") .style("visibility", "hidden"); // Add tooltips to the diagram svg.selectAll("g path") .on("mouseover", function(event, d) { // Log to verify the element is being selected console.log("Hovered element:", d); console.log("Hovered path:", this); // Create the tooltip (append it on hover) tooltip.style("visibility", "visible") .html(`Projects: ${d.size}`); // Highlight the hovered element (path) by adding a stroke d3.select(this) .style("stroke", "black") .style("stroke-width", 2); // Position the tooltip near the cursor tooltip.style("left", `${event.clientX + 10}px`) .style("top", `${event.clientY + 10}px`); }) .on("mousemove", function(event) { // Ensure the tooltip's container allows overflow d3.select(div) .style("position", "relative") .style("overflow", "visible"); // Tooltip positioning (fixed) tooltip.style("left", `${event.pageX + 10}px`) .style("top", `${event.pageY + 10}px`); }) .on("mouseout", function() { // Reset the highlight from the element (path) when the mouse leaves d3.select(this) .style("stroke", null) .style("stroke-width", null); // Hide the tooltip tooltip.style("visibility", "hidden"); }); return div; }4f:Tb0b,chart = { const width = 550; const height = 420; const radius = 160; const color = d3.scaleOrdinal() .domain(pieData.map(d => d.name)) .range(["#ca0020", "#f4a582", "#f4e4bd", "#92c5de", "#0571b0"]); const pie = d3.pie() .sort(null) .value(d => d.value); const arc = d3.arc() .innerRadius(0) .outerRadius(radius - 10); const arcs = pie(pieData); const svg = d3.create("svg") .attr("width", width) .attr("height", height) .attr("viewBox", [-width / 2, -height / 2, width, height]) .attr("style", "max-width: 100%; height: auto; font: 10px sans-serif;"); // Title (wrapped using tspan) svg.append("text") .attr("x", 0) .attr("y", -radius - 30) .attr("text-anchor", "middle") .attr("font-size", "20px") .attr("font-weight", "bold") .attr("font-family", "Georgia, serif") .selectAll("tspan") .data([ "Global Offshore Wind Projects (n=91) in the North", "Sea and Last Glacial Maximum by Country" ]) .enter() .append("tspan") .attr("x", 0) .attr("dy", (d, i) => `${i === 0 ? 0 : 26}px`) // vertical spacing .text(d => d); // Tooltip div (DOM element) const tooltip = d3.select(DOM.element("div")) .style("position", "absolute") .style("background", "rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8)") .style("color", "white") .style("border", "1px solid #ccc") .style("padding", "5px") .style("border-radius", "5px") .style("pointer-events", "none") .style("z-index", "1000") .style("visibility", "hidden"); // Pie chart slices with tooltip behavior svg.append("g") .selectAll("path") .data(arcs) .join("path") .attr("fill", d => color(d.data.name)) .attr("d", arc) .on("mouseover", function(event, d) { d3.select(this) .attr("stroke", "black") .attr("stroke-width", 2); tooltip.style("visibility", "visible") .text(`${d.data.name}:${d.data.value}`); }) .on("mousemove", function(event) { tooltip .style("top", (event.pageY - 30) + "px") .style("left", (event.pageX + 10) + "px"); }) .on("mouseout", function() { d3.select(this) .attr("stroke", null) .attr("stroke-width", null); tooltip.style("visibility", "hidden"); }); // Legend const legend = svg.append("g") .attr("transform", 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Group"}},"type":"notebook","body":{"titling":"auto","title":"Frozen Foundations","cells":[{"id":0,"value":"# Frozen Foundations","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":5,"value":"As today marks the start of a new month, a new theme will be explored - geological constraints on offshore wind development. Two geologically 'tricky' areas for offshore wind development will be considered across May:\n- Glaciated Areas\n- Carbonate Sediments","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":7,"value":"## (Inter)Glacial Cycles & the Last Glacial Maximum ","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":149,"value":"$49","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":589,"value":"## North Sea Case Study\nThe LGM extends across 72% of what is currently known as the North Sea, leaving a small percentage of the North Sea not affected by the complex geology associated with historical glacial environments. The table below highlights the relevant areas within this case study and their extent. \n\n| Area\t| km^{2^{|\n| - | - |\n| North Sea | 527,220 |\n| UK EEZ | 727,260 |\n| UK EEZ within the North Sea | 247,106 |\n| UK EEZ covered by LGM | 361,869 |\n| North Sea covered by LGM | 148,967 |\n\nExplore the data below, toggling on/off wind farm layers to highlight the spatial variability of projects across the North Sea, the LGM and divided by the Exclusive Economic Zones.","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":292,"value":"$4a","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":511,"value":"$4b","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":646,"value":"viewof combinedChart = {\n const container = DOM.element(\"div\");\n\n // Style the container for side-by-side layout\n Object.assign(container.style, {\n display: \"flex\",\n justifyContent: \"space-around\",\n alignItems: \"flex-start\",\n gap: \"20px\", // space between the charts\n marginTop: \"20px\"\n });\n\n // Append both the charts to the container\n container.appendChild(vennChart);\n container.appendChild(chart);\n\n return container;\n}","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":22,"value":"$4c","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":531,"value":"$4d","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":9,"value":"
\n## Appendix","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":11,"value":"### Plot 1: Map","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":175,"value":"northSea = FileAttachment(\"North Sea@1.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":358,"value":"lgm = FileAttachment(\"LGM@3.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":284,"value":"exclusiveEconomicZones = FileAttachment(\"Exclusive Economic Zones@1.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":179,"value":"windFarms = FileAttachment(\"Wind Farms.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":178,"value":"windFarmsInNSea = FileAttachment(\"Wind Farms in N Sea.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":176,"value":"windFarmsInLgm = FileAttachment(\"Wind Farms in LGM.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":177,"value":"windFarmsInNSeaAndLgm = FileAttachment(\"Wind Farms in N Sea and LGM.geojson\").json()","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":449,"value":"### Plot 2: Venn Diagram","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":430,"value":"$4e","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":425,"value":"venn = require(\"venn.js\")","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":423,"value":"vennData = [\n { sets: [\"North Sea\"], size: 234 },\n { sets: [\"Last Glacial Maximum\"], size: 304 },\n { sets: [\"North Sea\", \"Last Glacial Maximum\"], size: 91 }\n]","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":13,"value":"### Plot 3: Pie Chart","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":369,"value":"$4f","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":382,"value":"pieData = [\n { name: \"England\", value: 27 },\n { name: \"Scotland\", value: 39 },\n { name: \"Denmark\", value: 6 },\n { name: \"Norway\", value: 18 },\n { name: \"Germany\", value: 1 }\n]","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"},{"id":551,"value":"### Resources\nDogger Bank https://geoexpro.com/landscapes-under-the-north-sea-geology-and-offshore-wind/ https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/530797/1/Dogger_Bank.pdf","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"md","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"","database":"$undefined"},{"id":123,"value":"html``","pinned":false,"hidden":false,"mode":"ojs","author":"$undefined","summary":"$undefined","tool":"$undefined","providerMetadata":"$undefined","attachments":"$undefined","output":"$undefined","database":"$undefined"}],"files":"$W50","stdlib":"1"}}
24:null}}